Abstract:

Small islands are particularly vulnerable to high levels of tourism and high environmental degradation. In studying Mahé, the Seychelles, and Oahu, Hawaii, we found signs of environmental damage via satellite imagery that proved tourism was, indeed, harming the ecosystems of the islands in question. Using ENVI to analyze images from the Global Land Cover Facility, NightLight Imagery and various sources of literature, we discovered what tourism practices were causing degradation and thus were able to propose solutions islands could use to institute more sustainable development methods in support of ecotourism. These include increased education for locals and tourists alike, more foreign investment in sewage systems and more stringent regulation concerning development in natural areas. By pinpointing where resorts were, water pollution and its sources and vegetation indices, we mapped the greatest damage on Mahé and Oahu.

Introduction:

We will be studying sustainability in tourist hotspots and determining what factors can be marketed or changed to promote ecotourism. Specifically, we will examine resort and hotel locations, water pollution and island biodiversity based on greenness. Using remote sensing images, we will be able to determine the extent of island vegetation to see how natural elements can contribute to the amount of tourists annually. Our regions of interest are Oahu, Hawaii, and Mahé, the Seychelles. By performing this research, we hope to formulate methods of sustainable tourism that small islands can utilize to benefit their economy while maintaining natural environment.

Background:

Tourism is a growing industry that contributes immensely to the global economy. The two most popular locations for tourists happen to be mountains and the coast (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 12), making small islands such as Mahé, the Seychelles and Oahu, Hawaii, particularly vulnerable to high tourist numbers. According to the National Bureau of Statistics, Seychelles, the total number of visits to the region that includes the Seychelles jumped from 910 in 1990 to 2,366 in 2008. The same information source claims that total visits to Hawaii jumped from 676 in 1990 to 1,737 in 1998 (National Bureau of Statistics, Seychelles). This increase in tourism numbers directly correlates with an increase in island environment degradation, as “tourist activities imply an intensified utilisation of vulnerable habitats” (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 1). In general, the carrying capacity of any region, especially a small island, is easily exceeded with additional tourism demands (IBID, 5). Thus it is important to track how islands are being impacted to mitigate future harms tourism may cause.

Mahé, the Seychelles - There are many obstacles facing sustainable development in the Seychelles. There is a shortage of skilled human resource in fields related to environmental management. This can be expected with a small population and limited educational opportunities. The University of Seychelles was only just established in 2009, making it very recent. “The survival of small island developing states [such as Mahé] is firmly rooted in their human resources and cultural heritage… assets under severe stress” currently (IBID). Funding restraints to reduce greenhouse gases and develop sustainable facilities has also been hard to come by (Martin, 3). The greatest threat to the island group is climate change (IBID). However, there is currently work under way to develop more sustainable methods of tourism in the Seychelles. The Seychelles Eco-Tourism Strategy for the 21st Century was launched in 2003 to address climate change, ozone depletion and sustainable development (Martin, 25). The Green Islands Foundation, GIF, is an NGO dedicated to mainstreaming sustainable development in the Seychelles. While relatively young (established in 2006), it endeavors to create “public information packets on coastal development and management to promote and empower local community involvement…” (Green Islands Foundation Blog). Legislation has also been put into motion to protect the environment. There is the 2005 National Fisheries Policy, the 2008 UNDP-GEF Mainstream Biodiversity Management Program, the 2008 Mangroves for the Future! Project and various others (Martin, 18). The Environmental Protection act of 1994 controls water pollution and filtration (Ministry of Environment, Seychelles). Water pollution has been proliferated due to extensive shipping to the islands, as they rely on foreign imports for resources and infrastructure development, such as sewage treatment facilities (Seychelles Travel Guide). Since sewage treatment facilities need to be imported, there is great pressure on current landfills. The landfill at Providence, Mahé, is already 19 meters high in waste, which is its maximum capacity (Seychelles Nation.SC). There are plans under way to design a new landfill, but financing and support has not been easy to obtain. It is no surprise, though, that the landfill is at maximum capacity. “The amount of solid waste produced per capita in Seychelles [is]… 625kg per year… is comparable with many industrialized countries” (Martin, 15). With such heavy reliance on packaged imports in increased consumerism this is hardly surprising. Experts in the field agree that what the Seychelles needs the most is more education concerning tourism and the environment as well as more human resources at all levels of the tourism industry (Martin, 30).

Oahu, Hawaii – With statewide budget deficits, growing resource use conflicts, and a permanent labor force lacking environmental management skill sets, Oahu is facing difficulties with developing sustainably (Apostolopoulos, 20). Tourism in Hawaii is responsible for the current rates of economic progress seen in the US archipelago. The tourism industry accounted for 22% of the state’s GDP in 1998, a number that has risen to about 30% at present (IndigoGuide, Oahu). Oahu is especially burdened by the need for ecologically conscious growth since it is home to 75% of the state’s population, and over 100,000 visitors each month. The large population, in addition to the rare plant and animal species, 90% of which are found nowhere else in the world, are especially sensitive issues in the development gambit. Water pollution, though minimal, is noticeable near Pearl Harbor, the most trafficked shipping port, which is also located near the majority of hotels and the island’s main airport. Waste is becoming a bit of a concern on Oahu, as the island generates 1.79 million tons of solid waste annually (Dept. of Environmental Services). Of the two landfills operating on Oahu, only one, the Waimanalo Gulch Landfill, handles public waste. To ameliorate the trash troubles, Honolulu created an H-POWER plant in 1990 which takes the majority of commercial waste and converts it into clean energy that powers 7% of Oahu’s total electricity needs. By burning waste for energy and actively recycling 100% of metals and plastics, Oahu has “reduced the volume of refuse going to landfill by 90%” in the last 20 years. In order to better understand and regulate tourism generated externalities, the Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism of Hawaii is studying the benefits and costs of tourism growth in order to create new policies and tools to help the state balance tourist limits and resource and infrastructure use (DBEDT). “The Hawaii Tourism Authority has expressed its intention to exercise a leadership role in securing changes in planning, coordination of laws and permitting procedures, in order to support sustainable land uses related to tourism” (DBEDT, 12).

Methods:

To study Oahu and the Mahé, we utilized data from the following sources:

Small Island Developing States (SIDSnet), The World Bank, NightLight Global Resolution Data from Landsat Imagery, Global Land Cover Facility ESDI Data and Google Maps. Specifically, the images we used were:
Global Mosaic of NightLight Imagery: Remote Sensing, Geography 169, Downloaded by Thomas W. Gillespie.

Seychelles: SRTM_f03_s005e055 from GLCF: Earth Science Data Interface
L71156063_06320001014.ETM-USGS.LPGS from GLCF: Earth Science Data Interface

Hawaii: SRTM_GTOPO_u30_n040w180 from GLCF: Earth Science Data Interface
P064r45_4t19890216.tar.742.jpg from GLCF: Earth Science Data Interface

We will analyze this data using ENVI and ArcMap. Images have been spatially subset to focus in on the region in question specifically.
Data:

Using this data, we endeavor to learn how resort location affects environmental degradation. Further, we wish to determine how biodiversity levels contribute to annual tourism levels. Using satellite imagery that shows water pollution, we may be able to determine how much pollution tourism accrues. These discoveries will help us postulate methods islands can use to ameliorate the problem of environmental degradation due to tourism practices. We will attempt to learn:

- Does infrastructure location affect water pollution and vegetation conservation?
- Are these locales at risk for sea level changes?
- Are current tourism methods contributing to or mitigating environmental degradation?

Results:
Our study sites were Mahé and Oahu:

While using three bands of color to produce a satellite image in RGB helped to show vegetation, water and cloud cover, the resolution of the image was not clear enough to show hotel and resort locations relative to the island. Due to this detriment, we used Google Maps to pinpoint resort and hotel locations. Using Google Maps as a reference, we pinpointed resorts on our color map using an Adobe .pdf of our ArcMap. The results are the following maps, which show resort location on the islands in question:

Mahé - The various locations we pinpointed using Google Maps show an abundance of hotel and resort locations on the coast of Mahé. There are barely any tourist accommodations inland. The hotel and tourist locations are also a great distance from the airport, creating a greater need for vehicular transport and consequently more emissions.

Oahu - The image of Oahu’s hotel and resort locations show that the bulk of the island’s tourist accommodations are situated on the northern and southern coasts. The main airport of Oahu, five naval and Marine Corps bases, and all but two major cities and a military barracks are also located on the island’s coastal regions. While the majority of hotels are relatively close to Honolulu International Airport, those to the north, as well as all the cities along the western, eastern and northern coasts require more forms of transportation to reach them. The distance of all the major cities from one another increases the need for more mass transit or automobile usage, which not only increases carbon emissions, but burdens the coast with heavily trafficked highways.

It is important to recognize the elevation of the study areas. Both of these are low-laying islands, very near sea level. The highest point on Mahé is 905m, and the lowest is 0m; the highest point on Oahu is 1,334.33m, while the lowest is 0m (World Bank Data). Most of the island terrain for both sites is near or at sea level.

Mahé- As can be seen, there is very little change in elevation throughout the island. The 3d image has been warped to dramatize the elevation, as originally there was so little change the image was flat. In general, Mahé fits the bill of a standard island- flat and uniform throughout.
Oahu- Like Mahé, Oahu is an extremely flat island. There is relatively no change in elevation, so the 3D image had to be altered to emphasize the minute surface changes of the region.


The sheer size of the islands is also an indicator of its vulnerability. Using Landsat Nightlight Imagery, we were able to isolate what areas of the island have more light compared to areas with less light. Areas with more light can be understood to have more people or activity, meaning more environmental degradation.

Mahé – Most activity is occurring where the lightest yellow is, around the middle of the island. However, there is still abundant activity near the coast. Mahé is home to 80,000 people, not to mention the countless tourists visiting each year. The island’s area is merely 59.8 sq. miles, making it vulnerable to overpopulation (The World Bank).

Oahu – Oahu is the most densely populated of the islands in the Hawaii chain, though it is one of the smallest islands in terms of area. With 902,168 people on only 597 square miles, the resources of the island are sensitive to stress. As seen in the Nightlight image, the portion of Oahu that is the lightest shade of yellow is the most active and populous. The light yellow, however, makes up about 94% of total island space, indicating that all but the northern and southeastern coastal regions are heavily occupied.


We also used the NDVI function on ENVI to create a vegetation index of our islands. In general, more vegetation correlates to more biodiversity. By creating a vegetation index of our study sites, we were able to see how levels of greenness and biodiversity, which are also aspects that attract tourism.

The text indicates various locations on the island which may affect vegetation. Lighter colors on the map indicate more greenness, whereas darker colors represent less greenness. This greenness can also be interpreted as biodiversity, as the two correlate.

These numbers correlate to the spectral pixel editor on ENVI. This tool assigns values to certain bands, showing color change, and consequently vegetation change, in quantitative form.

Finally, we examined water pollution. We isolated the blue band of a Landsat image to see variations in water quality. This was not a particularly clear indicator of quality differentiation, so we used an ENVI tool to further clarify water pollution. By using a density slice of our color maps, we were able to see darker areas of the water, which correlate with higher levels of pollution. It seems as though the lighter colors correlate with higher levels of pollution, and the darker colors correlate with lower levels. Cyan would be the most polluted water, and the dark blue is the least. Black represents land cover, etc., and white represents cloud cover.

The lighter blue, which seemingly indicates greater levels of pollution, surrounds the area of Mahé that houses both the landfill and the airport. This very obviously indicates how improper waste treatment and storage, as well as travel emissions, affect water quality in the ocean.

According to the density slice of Oahu’s blue band, the lighter blue is indicative of greater levels of pollution. This seems to hold true as the locations of these lighter colors are near the island’s primary landfill, the region that houses Pearl Harbor and Honolulu International Airport, and the largest Marine Corps base, all on Oahu’s southern coast. Proximity to large populations and heavy traffic from ships, planes and vehicles are seemingly large contributors to water pollution.

Discussion:


Regarding tourist hotel/resort locations:

Mahé – As can be seen, most of the resort and hotel locations on the island of Mahé are on the coast, the most fragile and sought after location when it comes to tourism. As discussed in the background research, coastal areas are the most sought after by tourists, so it is easy to understand why hotel and resort tycoons would endeavor to build along the shorelines. Since 2004, hotels and private housing on the island of Mahé have increased, mostly on the coastal zone and near popular beaches (Martin, 9). Further, most infrastructure development in general (including power stations) lies on the coast (IBID, 13). The concept of developing tourism infrastructure on the coast of an island will most likely remain unchanged for years to come, as it is the appeal of the coast that attracts visitors initially. However, “sustainable development in small island developing states depends largely on coastal and marine resources, because their small land area means that those states are effectively COASTAL ENTITIES” (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 12). Mahé is a fragile region that requires education and protection. So, we recommend that hotels and resorts in developing tourism regions construct buildings with eco-conscious materials and information packets and sessions informing tourists of their impact and how they can reduce it.

Oahu – The majority of hotel and resort locations, as seems to hold true for most island travel locations, are found along Oahu’s coast. In fact, nearly all of Oahu’s tourist sites, cities, and infrastructure are built on the island’s fragile shoreline due to the popularity of ocean views and the need for transportation proximity. Hotel construction is constant on the island, as the need to accommodate more visitors and open up greater employment opportunities for locals rises. But recently, locals have shown an interest in limiting development to keep pristine areas, like Turtle Bay, from undergoing the massive development efforts in the name of tourism (Ariyoshi). Under the Hawaii Clean Energy Initiative, hotels are also becoming more ecologically sound. New publicly owned buildings and hotels are forced to be LEED certified, meaning they attain a certain level of energy efficiency and utilize renewable energy sources to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 70% (Slavin). Privately owned buildings would be constructed under a “fee-bate” system, where those that complied with LEED standards paid a permit fee, while those that exceeded those standards paid nothing. The payment system would similarly be used when older buildings underwent upgrades. The problem of coastal building would still exist, but resorts would be more environmentally conscious and have less of an ecological impact.

Regarding island elevation:

Mahé - As can be seen, the elevation throughout the island is quite uniform. The low elevation of the island contributes both to its tourism numbers and its environmental degradation. Research has already proven that the island is subject to climate change moreso than any other factor. Thus there is great risk concerning the survival of Mahé. “…Almost all the adaptation to climate change will have to deal with the issues of sea-level rise. As a significant portion of the land lies only a few feet above the sea, any increases in the level of the sea will have serious future implications” (Martin, 13). Our satellite imagery, then, is in line with past research and proves that climate change strategies need to be a top priority for Mahé. International legislation to mitigate GHG effects is vital for the survival of this island. Sea level could displace over 80,000 people, and it would disrupt their economy completely.

Oahu – The elevation of Oahu is the lowest among the Hawaiian island chain (IndigoGuide). 45% of its area is below 500 feet, with much of that just barely rising above sea level. Similar to Mahe, Oahu is in danger of sea-level rise induced by global warming. Because the elevation of Oahu is so low, even minimal increments of sea level rising would envelope the island’s narrow coastal plain which is the primary locations of most of its inhabitants. Oahu is increasingly focusing on the effect of climate change since the ocean is not only rising approximately 1.55 mm/year, but beaches undergoing rapid and poorly regulated development are becoming devoid of sediment and therefore more susceptible to the difficulties associated with rising sea levels (Fletcher, 1).

Regarding NightLight Imagery:

Mahé – As can be seen, there is a concentration of people all over the island. The island is merely 58.8 sq miles (The World Bank) and thus subject to reaching its carrying capacity quite rapidly. There is already an abundance of local population on Mahé, not to mention the influx of tourists per year. Limiting tourists annually would benefit the island in making it more exclusive as well as keeping degradation from visitors at a minimum. Mahé should set a maximum limit of tourist visits or beds to ensure that less people are visiting annually, so less resources would be required and less degradation would occur. This may affect the economy of the island negatively at first, but in the long run, it will maintain the aspects of Mahé that attract tourists there in the first place. Further, raising the prices of accommodations may limit the travelers to those who are willing to pay, resulting in less visitors but maintaining revenue.

Oahu – The Nightlight imagery clearly evinces the abundance of people on the island of Oahu. Even in the inner portions of the island, activity is still high, which is puzzling due to the lack of large cities inland. The high numbers on the island, however, are very obviously the consequence of Oahu carrying over 75% of Hawaii’s citizens, in addition to 5 million annual visitors (IndigoGuide). Oahu would be hard pressed to limit the number of visitors it receives since tourism is an enormous part of the island’s economy, although it could benefit from focusing future development endeavors on locations farther from the coast. Coastal regions are precarious, and compounding natural degradation with that caused by multitudes of buildings and people inhabiting the area is asking for future disaster. Oahu would be better off ecologically if it invested more resources inland.

Regarding NDVI Vegetation Index:

Mahé – As can be seen, there are higher levels of vegetation on the western side of the island, which is home to the Morne Seychelles National Park. There is less greenness on the eastern side of the island, which is home to the Providence landfill and the airport. One could infer that infrastructure development has had a clear impact on island vegetation. However, according to the World Bank, 87% of the land area of Mahé is forested, and the number has neither increased nor decreased from 1990-2009). If we examined Mahé vegetation from 1990 and compared it to current levels, we might see that the NDVI coloring has not changed, proving the World Bank statistic right. It is clear, however, that the Morne Seychelles National Park is conserving vegetation well and keeping Mahe green.

Oahu – The areas of Oahu with higher levels of greenness are those found in the middle stretch of the island. The island’s entire coast, as well as a large part of the island’s western side, is dark indicating little vegetation. The vegetation dearth is congruent with areas of development, signifying the negative impact building has on natural flora. Hawaiian dry forests, which comprise the most diverse range of Hawaii’s, (including Oahu) vegetation types, have 90% of their tree species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, yet 45% of those species are also at risk. In part due to population growth and development expansion, dry forests have been reduced to 10% of their original expanse (Gillespie, 3175). The lighter regions, designating greater vegetation, are located near Oahu’s parks and preserved spaces, and also where much of the land is often uninhabited. Setting aside open space in the forms of state and national parks is helping to conserve much of Oahu’s indigenous biodiversity, and the prevalence of coastal building has the twofold consequence of degrading coastal greenness while saving vegetation inland.

Regarding water pollution:

Mahé – The isolated blue band and density slice show different ocean water types from the west to the east sides of Mahe. On the west, there are resorts, but also the National Park. On the east, there is a landfill and the airport, located very near to the cyan color representing higher levels of pollution. We can safely say, then, that by using satellite imagery, we were able to determine where higher levels of water pollution on Mahé occurred. The landfill is particularly detrimental, as it has already reached maximum capacity. The high dependence on imports leads to solid waste accruing at an expedited rate, stored in the sanitary landfill site on a reclaimed coral fill land (Martin, 15). It is understandable, then, that there is higher water pollution in this area than near the hotels. The hotels of Mahé have a contract with LWMA, the Landscape and Waste Management Agency, to properly recycle and dispose of waste in a sustainable fashion (IBID). Since mostly private sectors are in charge of managing waste and energy, as opposed to the government (Martin, 30), we suggest NGOs of developed countries invest in assisting the island in implementing cleaner technologies and treatment facilities. Only with foreign investment can Mahe hope to develop in a sustainable fashion, maintaining its resources without sacrificing its environment. Investors “should strive to adopt environmentally sound technologies or other measure to minimize the consumption of local ground water” (Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2) specifically, as this is a non-renewable (in the human timeline) resource that requires conservation.

Oahu - The density slice and blue band image show the differences in ocean cleanness around the island of Oahu. The lighter blue color, indicative of higher levels of pollution, is near the southern coastal regions, where the majority of hotels and the island’s main airport are situated. The landfill, while reduced due to the use of waste-to-energy power plants, is still disadvantageous to preserving clean water as the emissions from waste transport, along with the waste itself, poses a problem to a pollution-free ocean (Dept. of Environmental Services). The cyan color evident near Oahu’s eastern coast is mostly attributed to emissions from ship s, as well as sewage discharge. In 1978, the Marine Corps Base’s and Kailua-Kaneohe City’s treatment plants actively dumped primary and secondary treated effluent in the ocean (Bilyard, 3). The dumping reduced water clarity, increased algae biomass, and destroyed much of the nearby coral communities. With increased sewage treatment and diversion, a large part of Kanehoe Bay has recovered. Throughout the island, however, illegal dumping, sedimentation from development, and persistent algae and phytoplankton populations continue to thrive and pollute the waters off the coast.
























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